Category: General

Cracks in Your Home or Building: What They Really Mean

Cracked Building on Shola Market Area, Addis Ababa

Building in Addis Ababa

Cracked Gibe Bridge Jimma Road, Ethiopia

Jimma Road Gibe Bridge

House on Kera

We’ve all noticed cracks—on walls, floors, houses, or even roads—and many of us instinctively assume something went wrong in construction. But in reality, most cracks are perfectly normal.

STRESS

Cracks are the building’s way of showing how it reacts to stress, temperature changes, moisture, and the passage of time.
They are clues which reveal how a structure is behaving, aging, and responding to its environment.

Every building, from the smallest home to the tallest tower, develops patterns over time, and cracks are part of that natural story. Whether you’re a homeowner, tenant, or simply curious, this guide will help you understand what cracks indicate, which ones are harmless, and which ones need attention.

What Exactly Is a Crack?

Imagine bending a plastic ruler. At first, it flexes easily. Push a little more and you feel resistance. Push too far and it suddenly snaps. A crack in a building material works the same way: it’s a split or opening that forms when the stress on the material exceeds its strength.

Materials like concrete, brick, wood, plaster, and steel all have limits. When those limits are reached—due to movement, temperature changes, poor construction, or natural aging—they respond by cracking.

Various Construction Materials that can crack under stress

Unlike the ruler or the above balloon, a building doesn’t usually fail just because a crack appears. Cracks act as visible clues: some are harmless, reflecting normal changes, while others point to stress or movement that may need attention.

Why Do Cracks Happen?

Cracks usually result from a combination of factors rather than a single cause. Here are the most common reasons:

Temperature changes: Materials expand in heat and contract in cold. Over time, these tiny movements can add up and cause cracks.
Example: Long concrete walls without expansion joints often develop straight cracks because they have nowhere to expand.
Moisture, drying, and shrinkage: Concrete, plaster, and mortar shrink as they dry, sometimes unevenly, creating hairline cracks. Excess moisture can also weaken materials or corrode steel, leading to deeper cracks.
Soil movement and settlement: The ground beneath a building can settle, shrink, swell, or shift, affecting floors and walls.
Example: Clay soils swell during rainy seasons and shrink in dry ones, causing cracks in foundations or walls.
Aging of materials: Over time, concrete becomes brittle, steel corrodes, wood warps, and paint peels. Natural aging can make cracks appear.
Heavy loads and external forces: Vibrations, strong winds, storms, machinery, or nearby traffic can stress buildings, sometimes leading to cracks.
Construction or design issues: Poor-quality materials, weak foundations, inadequate reinforcement, rushed construction, or lack of expansion joints can cause cracks to appear later.

Where Do Cracks Happen Most?

Cracks can appear anywhere, but some areas are more prone because they face higher stress:

Around windows and doors: Weak points where movement shows

Corners of rooms or buildings: Stress concentrates here.

Junctions of different materials: For example, brick meeting concrete.

Floors and roof slabs: Affected by shrinkage, moisture, and temperature changes.

Columns and beams: May crack from bending, shear, or corrosion.

Foundations and base of walls: Settlement often creates diagonal or tapered cracks.

Outdoor areas like driveways, pavements, and bridges also develop cracks from traffic loads, weather changes, and soil movement.

In general, cracks follow the weakest path—mortar joints, thin sections, or lightly loaded areas—giving clues about how the structure responds to forces.

Shapes and Types of Cracks

The shape of a crack can provide insight into its cause and severity. Here’s a simple guide:

Crack types and direction as well as shape

Hairline cracks: Thin, cosmetic, caused by drying or minor temperature changes.

Vertical cracks: Often due to normal settlement or minor movement.

Diagonal cracks: Can appear when loads shift or foundations settle unevenly.

Step cracks in brick walls: Follow mortar lines, usually signaling foundation movement.

Horizontal cracks: More serious; may indicate soil pressure, water pressure, or structural stress.

Tapered cracks: Wider on one side; often linked to settlement or heave.

Random/Map cracks: Web-like surface cracks on concrete from rapid moisture loss; usually superficial.

Understanding these patterns helps determine whether a crack is cosmetic or requires professional attention.

Are Cracks Dangerous?

Most cracks are harmless, small, and simply part of how materials age and move. However, some cracks signal deeper structural issues, especially those caused by foundation movement, heavy loads, or design flaws. Key points:

Hairline cracks are usually safe.

Larger, growing cracks—especially diagonal, stepped, or wider than a few millimeters—may indicate ongoing stress.

Active cracks that continue to widen should be inspected by a professional.

Knowing what cracks mean can prevent unnecessary worry, help you catch problems early, and ensure safer homes and buildings.

Can Cracks Be Maintained?

Cracks aren’t something we “maintain” the way we maintain paint or flooring. Instead, the goal is to prevent them, repair them, or manage them depending on their cause and severity.

Small, stable cracks (hairline, <1 mm): are often harmless and can be left alone or sealed/repainted to stop moisture.
Active or growing cracks: should not be filled with rigid materials (cement, hard epoxy) which may reopen or create new cracks. These types of crack need flexible sealants (mastic, polyurethane) to allow movement.
Structural or large cracks: fix the underlying cause first (settlement, soil movement, corrosion, etc.) Then use specialized repairs like epoxy injection or stitching.

What’s Next?

In the next post, we’ll cover:

How to prevent cracks: Simple maintenance, proper construction practices, and habits to reduce cracking.
How to assess cracks safely: Tips for checking a crack’s size, location, shape, and growth without risk.
When to call a professional: Signs that a crack may be structural and guidance on which experts to contact.

With this knowledge, you’ll feel confident recognizing cracks, understanding their causes, and taking the right actions to protect your building.

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Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering: Understanding the Ground Beneath Your Structure

We often admire our surroundings—towering buildings, long-span bridges, or massive dams—and wonder about the engineering effort that went into their construction. Because we see only the finished structures, we tend to overlook one critical element: the ground beneath them.

Petronas building looking from ground up. Proper geotechnical investigation to support big structures.

Any small or massive project, no matter how strong the concrete or how advanced the design, ultimately depends on the soil and rock it stands on. Welcome to the world of geotechnical engineering—the science of studying the ground we build on. Every crack in a house wall, every bumpy road, or even a landslide often has the same hidden cause: the soil or rock beneath.

In this article, we’ll give you a clear introduction to what geotechnical engineering is and why it matters everywhere in the world. If you’re curious about how these ideas apply right here in Ethiopia, you’ll also find a special section with local examples in the link below.

What is Geotechnical Engineering?

Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering that studies the soil and rock beneath our feet and how they behave when we build on them. It helps engineers understand whether the ground can safely support structures like houses, roads, bridges, and dams.

In simple terms, geotechnical engineers ask questions like:

How strong is the soil/rock?

Will it shrink, swell, or slide under pressure?

How does water affect its stability?

By answering these questions, engineers can design the right foundations, slopes, and earthworks, preventing cracks, settlements, or even catastrophic failures.

Around the world, geotechnical engineering is essential for every structure from skyscrapers in New York to highways in Japan or dams in Brazil. Without it, even the most advanced construction materials can fail because the ground beneath is not properly understood.

Why You Really Need a Geotechnical Investigation for Your Project

One of the most basic—and longstanding—reasons for conducting a geotechnical investigation is that the ground beneath a project may contain weak soils, unstable rock, or hidden geological features. A detailed study of these conditions can protect your project from a variety of known foundation and geotechnical failures, such as cracking, settlement, or even structural collapse.

At the same time, modern construction brings new challenges. As cities grow, buildings are constructed closer together, and existing structures are often modified or expanded to meet evolving needs. These changes place additional demands on the ground and on foundations.

Common scenarios where geotechnical investigations are crucial:

Building on soft and expansive soils
- Soft ground is potentially susceptible for strength failure and settlement. This could cause collapse or leaning of a structure. In areas with black cotton soils, seasonal swelling and shrinking can crack walls and damage foundations if not properly accounted for.
Constructing on slopes or hilly terrain
- Heavy rains can trigger landslides or slope failures, especially for roads or hillside housing projects.
Adding extensions to existing buildings
- Modifying or adding floors increases load on foundations. Without understanding the original soil capacity, new additions may cause uneven settlement or structural stress.
Urban construction
- In dense cities, new buildings are often constructed close to older structures. Proper soil assessment ensures that nearby foundations are not undermined or overloaded.
Bridges, dams, and major infrastructure
- Large projects must account for riverbanks, floodplains, or soft alluvial soils, to prevent settlement or failure.
Road construction on variable soils
- Highways built across mixed soil zones can develop cracks, potholes, or uneven surfaces if geotechnical considerations are ignored.
Sites with hidden geological features
- Subsurface faults, cavities, or weak rock layers can compromise any structure if not detected in advance.
Dam construction
- Dams require detailed soil and rock investigations to ensure the foundation can safely hold water pressure and prevent seepage.
Sensitive power plants or industrial facilities
- Critical facilities like hydro, wind, or thermal plants must be built on stable ground to prevent operational hazards and ensure long-term safety.
Earthquake-prone areas
- Certain regions are susceptible to seismic activity. Soil studies help engineers design foundations that resist shaking and reduce the risk of collapse.

Key Benefits of Geotechnical Investigations

Conducting a geotechnical investigation may seem like an extra step, but it brings clear benefits that directly address the challenges in the ten common scenarios outlined above. Here’s why it matters:

Identifies Ground Conditions – Provides detailed knowledge of soil type, strength, and behavior under load.
Prevents Foundation Failures – Helps avoid structural cracks, settlements, or collapses.
Ensures Safety of Structures – Reduces risks to lives and property by anticipating potential hazards.
Supports Proper Design Decisions – Guides engineers in choosing the right foundation type, depth, and reinforcement.
Reduces Construction Costs – Prevents expensive repairs and overdesign by matching design to actual ground conditions.
Minimizes Construction Delays – Detects potential issues before work begins, avoiding unexpected interruptions.
Facilitates Sustainable Development – Ensures that new projects do not negatively affect surrounding buildings or land.
Improves Long-Term Durability – Increases the lifespan of structures by accounting for soil behavior over time.
Enhances Risk Management – Identifies potential hazards like groundwater, weak soils, or hidden geological features.
Supports Regulatory Compliance – Meets legal or engineering standards for safe construction practices.

Conclusion

Understanding the ground beneath a construction site is just as important as the materials and design of the structure itself. Geotechnical engineering provides the tools and knowledge to study soil and rock, anticipate potential problems, and ensure that buildings, roads, bridges, and other infrastructure are safe, durable, and cost-effective.

Geotechnical investigations are vital step in every project—from uncovering weak soils and hidden geological features to guiding proper foundation design and minimizing construction risks. While these principles are important worldwide, Ethiopia’s unique soils and geological conditions make them especially critical for local construction.

In our exclusive follow-up content, ‘Why You Really Need a Geotechnical Investigation in Ethiopia’, we explore real-world practices and lessons, including:

The importance of geotechnical investigation in Ethiopian Context
Common bad practices revolving around geotechnical investigation.
Common Problems Encountered in Ethiopia in relation to improper investigation.
Recommended Actions / Best Practices to adopt for our projects.

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Choosing the Right Construction Contract: Types, Standards, and Best Practices

Construction contracts are vital for managing projects and foresee their successful completion. In order to prepare a professional contract document, it is necessary to understand the various types of contracts. In addition, industry standards and best practices also contribute to effectiveness of these contracts.

In this article, we will look into the different types of constructions; local and international standards; as well as advantages/disadvantages of contract to specific project type.

What are the types of construction contract?

Construction contracts can be generally classified into four basic categories though different references broaden this category into multiple numbers. We shall add one more category to these well recognized classifications.

1 Lumpsum Contract

Lumpsum contracts are also known as fixed price contracts. In simple words, an owner and a contractor will agree on total cost of the project at the beginning of their negotiation. And, this agreed cost will be fixed or will not be changed until completion of the project. Very general example could be: “an owner and a contractor agree to build a G+2 residential building for cost of 5 million”. So, what’s the advantage and disadvantage of this type of contract.

Advantages of Lumpsum Contract	Disadvantages of Lumpsum Contract
+ Owner is sure of the financial requirement of the project + Contractor can maximize profit by using effective construction methods	– Works for projects with clearly defined scope – Contractor takes on more risk – It is difficult to accommodate changes

2 Unit Price Contract

Unit price contracts divide project scope into units like, man-hour, meter, liter, kilo grams, and so on. And, a contractor will assign price to each unit and comes up with final estimate of final project cost. A well-prepared design and quantity estimate can benefit both owner and contractor by giving clear picture of the overall cost of the project.

Advantages of Unit Price Contract	Disadvantages of Unit Price Contract
+ The project is simplified and divided into units + Contractor can feel comfortable in estimating cost for each unit + Change can be managed in these projects	– It is difficult to determine total cost – Contractor may risk loss if he poorly estimated unit costs – Measurement of works and completion checks must be done carefully

3 Time and Materials Contract

In this type of contract, the owner promises to pay cost related material and labor while certain amount of profit is allocated for the contractor. This contract can be a quick method to start/launch a project when project scope could be not be quantified at start.

Advantages of Time and Materials Contract	Disadvantages of Time and Materials Contract
+ Favors flexibility in both design and construction methods + Contractor’s risk for profit loss is minimized + Easy to start project construction	– Cost overrun may happen – Requires intensive and well-organized project management – Advisable for small projects only

4 Cost-Plus Contract

An owner of a construction project can agree to pay all cost related to the projects work [COST] and agree to pay certain additional amount [PLUS] for a contractor. This contract can be used when a project scope is not clearly defined or changes over time.

Advantages of Cost-Plus Contract	Disadvantages of Cost-Plus Contract
+ Contractors are safe from loss of profit risk + Projects will have innovative nature	– Project cost cannot be estimated – Requires intensive and well-organized project management

5 Design-Build Contract

This contract type bundles design and construction phases together. This contract overlaps to some extent both the effort and time of project execution. Since a contractor is responsible for design and construction, it can create speed and optimization.

Advantages of Design-Build Contract	Disadvantages of Design-Build Contract
+ Good in handling complex projects + Construction Speed + Good for design and construction teams’ cooperation	– Project cost can be high – Low flexibility in design changes

What are the relevant standards for these construction contract types?

The contract types mentioned above have their own unique features to consider when drafting their contracts. To address these unique features, international and local standards are developed. The following are some of commonly used standards.

FIDIC Conditions of Contract: is the most commonly used form of contracts world-wide and in our country. This contract is suitable for preparing document for the different construction contract types.
MoWUD Standard Conditions of Contract: Ethiopian Ministry of Works and Urban Development drafted this agreement in 1994. It is dedicated to construction contracts which requires professional modification to specific contract type.
PPA Contract: Ethiopian Federal Public Procurement Agency also prepared conditions of contract for construction project. It is updated on 2011.
Government Authorities: Ethiopian Roads Administration (ERA), Addis Ababa City Roads Authority (AACRA), Addis Ababa Water and Sewage Authority (AAWSA), and so on seems to have some kind of a variation to the above standards.

Depending up on project’s scope of work and other requirements, one can develop a construction contract document based on the above standards. Good technical and legal knowledges are required in drafting the documents.

What are the best practices to prepare contract documents?

The following are some the best practices in preparing and developing construction documents in general.

*Use clear or non-confusing language:* Vague terms like “reasonable,” “substantial,” or “satisfactory” are contract killers. They mean different things to different people. Fix this by being painfully specific. Instead of “timely completion,” write “completion within 45 calendar days from permit approval”.
*Use complete scope definitions:* A weak scope statement sounds like: “Contractor will renovate kitchen.” A strong scope lists every: demolition activity; material with brand, model, and color; installation method; and testing procedure.
*Include insurance and bonding requirements:* The requirements for insurance coverage aren’t suggestions – they’re non-negotiable protection.
*Adequate change management provisions:* Changes happen on every project. Your contract needs an invincible process for handling them. Weak change management leads to: unpaid work, schedule delays, relationship breakdown, disputes over what was “included”.
*Set realistic schedules:* Smart scheduling means: accounting for permit delays; considering material delivery times; planning for weather impacts; and including realistic client decision timelines.

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Why Buildings and Bridges Collapse: Top 10 Reasons You Should Know

It is a very common way for people to think that a building or a bridge to be safe and stable as long as it has the usual slick and attractive looks. This assumption can be wrong if these structures are not designed and built as per the industry standards. So, why do buildings and bridges fail? Here are top ten lists

READ HELPFUL BOOKS ON THIS TOPIC

Failure Case Studies in Civil Engineering: Structures, Foundations, and the Geoenvironment
By ASCE

The book compiles 50 real-world engineering failures, analyzing causes such as design flaws, construction errors, and unexpected conditions, while highlighting the lessons learned. The book is widely valued as a teaching resource for linking theory to practice, helping students and professionals understand how failures occur and how to prevent them in future projects.

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More Books

Why Buildings Fall Down: How Structures Fail
By Matthys Levy & Mario Salvadori

The book explores the many ways in which structures collapse, using historical and modern case studies. It covers failures due to natural forces (earthquakes, wind, soil settlement), design or material flaws, overloading, fatigue, and lack of redundancy. The book mixes technical explanations (in accessible terms) with real disasters—like bridge collapses, failed dams, and building walkways—and offers lessons on how engineering, regulation, and maintenance can help prevent future catastrophes.

To Forgive Design: Understanding Failure
By Henry Petroski

The book examines how engineering failures happen—not just because of design errors, but due to a complex mix of human, social, economic, and cultural factors. He reviews famous disasters—from bridge collapses and oil spills to structural collapses—and shows how failing to anticipate failure, or admitting risk, often worsens outcomes. Ultimately, the book argues that understanding and owning up to failure is essential: failures teach lessons that lead to safer, more thoughtful design.

Failure Mechanisms in Building Construction
By ASCE

The book investigates how and why buildings fail, breaking down a wide variety of failure types, their root causes, and how they can be diagnosed. It contains many case studies (shelf-angles, glazing leaks, masonry/plank issues, frame shortening, etc.) showing the symptoms, technical causes, and identifying characteristics of each failure type. It also includes guidance on how to conduct forensic investigations—fieldwork, lab testing, report writing, and even expert testimony—and ends with an annotated bibliography and index of failure mechanisms.

Success Through Failure: The Paradox of Design
By Henry Petroski

The book shows how failures drive innovation, arguing that studying design breakdowns—from bridges to space shuttles—reveals weaknesses, informs improvements, and ultimately makes engineering safer and more successful.

1. Structural Failure

Buildings and bridges are designed to carry loads from people, animals, vehicles, wind and so on. These loads are transferred to the ground using structural elements (like slab, beam, column, girder, etc.). Structural failure occurs when the design or arrangement of these elements cannot withstand the applied forces. Any design or construction error/problem in these elements will lead to failure of part or all of the structure.

Example

The Tacoma Narrows Bridge (USA, 1940) — nicknamed “Galloping Gertie”, it collapsed due to aeroelastic flutter, a structural failure caused by wind vibrations not considered in the design.

2. Foundation Failure

buildings and bridges stand on the ground. Simply stated, this ground need to be stable and firm to carry load from these structures. A foundation is a structural element which transfers load from the structure to the ground. Poor site investigations, bad design/construction of foundation, unstable ground, or settlement means sinking or falling down of building/bridge. Famous failures often trace back to weak or inadequate foundations.

Example

Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italy) — although still standing, it tilted due to weak, unstable soil beneath its foundation. In worse cases, entire buildings sink or crack.

3. Construction Material

Construction of buildings and bridges involves different material types with huge quantities. Examples of these material types are wood, steel, concrete, masonry, bricks, etc. The quality of these materials is directly related to their strength and their load carrying capacity. If sub-standard or poor quality material is used, failure is eminent. The structural failure will be critical in case this material is used in structural elements like building columns and bridge girders/piers. Even when designs are correct, the use of poor materials compromises performance, leading to cracking, spalling, or eventual collapse.

Example

Rana Plaza Collapse (Bangladesh, 2013) — substandard concrete and steel were used in addition to illegal building extensions, leading to a catastrophic collapse that killed over 1,100 people.

4. Loading

In designing buildings and bridges, the type and magnitude of loads are computed using industry standards. Any major deviation from this calculated loads or types will incur unexpected forces on structure elements which could lead to disastrous failures. Failure occurs when actual loads exceed the design capacity due to overcrowding, excessive storage, or unexpected use.

Example

Hyatt Regency Walkway Collapse (USA, 1981) — an improperly designed connection detail couldn’t withstand the weight of hundreds of people gathered during a dance event, killing 114 people.

5. Fatigue and Wearing

Fatigue and wearing is a process in which a material losses part of its initial quality through repetitive loading, vibrations, or temperature variations. In this case, proper inspection and maintenance need to be done which otherwise lead to permanent failure.

Example

Silver Bridge Collapse (USA, 1967) — the suspension bridge fell due to metal fatigue in a single eye bar link, causing 46 fatalities.

6. Construction Workmanship

Construction workmanship refers to man power skill, use of equipment, procedure and safety standards. Improper concrete mixing, weak welds, misaligned reinforcements, shortcuts during execution, and lack of supervision are common issues. Human error and negligence during construction directly translate to structural weakness and long-term risks.

Example

Lotus Riverside Apartment (China, 2009) — a 13-story building toppled after improper excavation weakened its base.

7. Natural Disaster

Earthquakes, volcanoes, floods, landslides, etc. account for natural disasters. The forces from these natural phenomena are enormous for buildings and bridges to bear. But, the design of buildings and bridges need to consider these forces to some extent. This consideration will make evacuation and lifesaving work possible in case of disaster.

Example

Kobe Earthquake (Japan, 1995) — thousands of buildings and bridges collapsed because older structures weren’t designed to resist strong seismic activity.

8. External Forces

Erosion, scour, chemical degradation, etc. are preventable forces which damage buildings and bridges. Proper investigation at design stage and monitoring during service will alleviate the damage from these forces.

Example

I-35W Mississippi River Bridge (USA, 2007) — collapsed during rush hour, partly due to design flaws but worsened by external stresses, including construction loads.

9. Construction Planning

Poor planning—such as inadequate site surveys, weak logistics, rushed schedules, and lack of coordination—creates hidden risks. If planning fails to account for timelines, resources, or site constraints, quality often suffers. Poor planning may also mean critical tests and inspections are skipped, increasing chances of failure. These invisible crucial planning problems will integrate with above failure causes to bring down buildings and bridges to the ground. Read our article on this subject: Construction Planning for Owners and Project Managers.

Example

Sampoong Department Store (South Korea, 1995) — unauthorized design changes and poor planning led to one of the deadliest building collapses in history, killing over 500 people.

10. Construction Management

Even with a strong design and plan, weak management can bring failure. Lack of supervision, poor communication among teams, ignoring safety protocols, and cost-cutting measures all compromise project integrity. Effective project management ensures quality control, proper sequencing, inspections, and adherence to design standards—its absence invites disaster.

Example

FIU Pedestrian Bridge (USA, 2018) — warnings were ignored and oversight was weak, leading to collapse just days after installation, killing six.

Conclusion

Every building and bridge failure tells a story—not only of broken concrete and twisted steel but also of human oversight, negligence, or lack of preparation. By studying these causes, engineers, managers, and stakeholders can prevent history from repeating itself. Strong design, quality materials, skilled workmanship, proper planning, and robust management together create structures that truly stand the test of time.

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Exploring Civil Engineering Study Areas: Structural, Geotechnical, Transportation, and More
From clean water that we drink everyday; to roads/highway that we travel on; to sweet home house buildings that we dwell, all have the finger prints of civil engineering. Civil engineering as a backbone of civilization through out history. It serves the need of people and communities by designing and building houses, buildings, bridges, railways, tunnels, water treatment plants, pipe lines, and so on.

Civil engineering plans, designs, constructs/builds, monitors, and maintains various structures to benefit society. Civil engineering also studies our surroundings to create safe environment by managing waste and pollution.

READ HELPFUL BOOKS ON THIS TOPIC

Amazing Feats of Civil Engineering
By L. E. Carmichael

The book highlights the history and role of civil engineers, showcasing iconic projects like bridges, tunnels, and skyscrapers, while inspiring readers with real-world examples and career insights.

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An Overview of the Field of Civil Engineering
By Sheng-Taur Mau

The book introduces the profession, explaining its history, main branches, and the vital role engineers play in designing and maintaining infrastructure.

Civil Engineering: A Very Short Introduction
By David Muir Wood

The book offers a concise look at the field, covering its history, key figures, and essential works like bridges, tunnels, and water systems, while addressing modern challenges of materials, energy, and sustainability.

Engineering in Plain Sight — An Illustrated Field Guide to the Constructed Environment
By Grady Hillhouse

The book shows how infrastructure around us works, from power lines and bridges to water systems and tunnels. It uses clear writing, color illustrations, and bite-sized explanations to help non-engineers “see” the built environment with new eyes, spotting everyday engineering details that usually go unnoticed

Engineering the City: How Infrastructure Works (Projects and Principles for Beginners)
By Matthys Levy & Richard Panchyk

The book explains how the hidden systems of a city—such as water, electricity, gas, sewers, bridges, roads, and wires—are built and function. It traces how these infrastructures evolved with urban growth, uses diagrams, experiments and games to teach principles, and shows both visible and invisible parts of city engineering.

The Corniche mixed-use development, three landmark towers, London

Structural Engineering

Structural engineering deals with the forces acting on structures and how these forces are safely transferred to the ground.

More explanation on structural engineering

Structural engineering studies forces applied on a structure; how to carry them and properly transfer them to the ground. The forces could come from people, animals, vehicles, wind, earthquake, water, etc.

In case of buildings, structural engineer receives designs from architectural engineer. Then, he/she analyze and design different parts (beams, columns, shear walls, etc) of the building to carry loads and stand on the ground. Furthermore, structural engineers are also intensively involved in similar tasks on bridges, towers, and other civil engineering structures too. Depending on the type of structure, we name structural engineers as building structural engineer, bridge structural engineers, and so on.

Geotechnical Engineering

This field studies the strength and behavior of soil and rock to ensure the ground can safely support structures like buildings, bridges, and dams.

Piers of a cable-stayed bridge in Mumbai, India

More explanation on geotechnical engineering

Almost all civil engineering structures are placed on natural and/or man-made ground. Geotechnical Engineering studies the load carrying capacity and stability of the ground. This field studies behavior and strength of soil and rocks in the ground.

Massive structures like sky scrapers, bridges, dams, etc exert a lot of pressure on the ground. This leads to stress and settlement of the ground. If these stress and settlement exceed the allowable limit, the building or bridge can fail or lean. In addition, this field studies landslides and earthquakes.

Construction Material Engineering

Construction Materials Engineering focuses on studying materials behavior in the lab and field to set requirements that ensure quality.

More explanation on construction materials engineering

Construction materials can be defined as items or things used to build or construct civil engineering structures. There are a lot of construction materials like concrete, stone, timber, steel, asphalt, soil, bricks, hollow blocks, aluminum, glasses, plastics, geosynthetics, etc. These materials need to have certain qualities to carry loads and withstand other environmental factors.

Construction Materials Engineering studies the behavior of these materials both on field and laboratory. It specifies certain requirements to reach planned quality.

Transportation and Traffic Engineering

Transportation and traffic engineering involves planning, designing, building, and managing infrastructure to enable efficient transport which is essential for development and progress.

A complex highway and railway interchange in Moscow, Russia

More explanation on transportation and traffic engineering

Transportation can be generally defined as moving or transporting people, commodities, materials, animals, and so on from one place to another. For this purpose, transportation means like carts, vehicles, buses, trucks, trains, airplanes, etc. are required. These transportation means need roads, bridges, railways, and airfields infrastructures to travel and land on.

Transportation and traffic engineering is planning, designing, building/constructing, managing and maintaining of these infrastructures. Any nation with high development goals should aspire to proper and efficient systems of transport and traffic management.

A mass concrete gravity dam, Laggan Dam, Scottish Highlands

Hydraulic Engineering

Hydraulic engineering focuses on studying how water moves and behaves, and it designs systems like dams, canals, and bridges to control, store, and deliver water safely where it is needed.

More explanation on hydraulic engineering

All living things require water for survival. However, water is not found everywhere. This means that there is a need to transport water from one place. Hydraulic engineering studies water movement and retention in a given environment.

Hydraulic Engineering analyzes the force and effect of water movement as a fluid. Hydraulic Engineering develops models for dams, bridges, irrigation canals, bridges, etc so that water can be stored and safely transported to its intended location.

Environmental Engineering

Environmental engineering deals with protecting the environment and public health through proper design, construction, and management of systems that handle water, air, and waste. Civil engineers in this field work on projects such as clean water supply, wastewater treatment plants, solid waste management, drainage systems, pollution control, and sustainable construction practices.
More explanation on environmental engineering

This civil engineering field is drawn from environmental science in which human beings use environment’s resources. Environmental engineering studies, plans, designs, construct plants for the following purposes:
- Provide clean water to people
- Waste water treatment
- Pollution control
- Garbage collection and disposal
In general, environmental engineering build treatment plants and prepare disposal areas so that we get clean drinking water and safe environment to live in.

Construction Management

Construction management ensures that a project is completed on time, within budget, and according to quality and safety standards. It involves the process of planning, coordinating, and controlling a construction project from start to finish.

More explanation on construction management

Most civil engineering fields discussed above are inter-related and involve planning, analyzing, designing and modeling of particular structures. To actually build or construct these structures, construction management is required. Construction management plans, estimates, bids, construct, and maintain all civil engineering structures.

Construction management starts by studying the needs and requirement of a certain project.
Summary

Civil engineering is an integral part of our life in which it builds and/or construct unique structures which enables our daily life safe and easy. Civil engineering provides:
- Safe and comfortable houses, buildings, offices
- Fast and smooth roads, bridges, railways, airfields
- Water for drinking, washing, swimming
- Waste water treatment for healthy environment
- Pollution control and waste management
- Mitigation measures from natural disasters
To safe guard the above way of life, it is vital to properly study and apply civil engineering. Civil engineering professionals in each specific field shall be employed to undertake projects. In our next post, we will uncover the disasters that happened in connection to civil engineering.

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